what led to the decline of the qing dynasty

The Fall of the Qing, 1840-1912

David Pong

• LAST REVIEWED: 08 June 2017
• LAST MODIFIED: 22 April 2013
• DOI: x.1093/obo/9780199920082-0029

Introduction

The terminal seventy-some years of the Qing dynasty, only put, is a story of decline. Just a closer examination reveals a much more circuitous and nuanced picture. The reasons for turn down are fairly straightforward, though scholars might dispute the relative weighting among them. The period opened with the First Opium War (1839–1842), a milestone in the dynastic decline. Viewed more broadly, however, the sources of this decline—if seen equally a function of ailing institutions such every bit the exam system or an increasingly inefficient acquirement system out of sync with population growth—tin can be traced back to the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and before. As such, this perspective focuses on large sociopolitical forces that beg the question of whether the decline was not just of the Qing political guild but of China's civilization itself. Symptomatic of this decline, reforms came slowly and with express and sporadic regime support. Known as the Qing Restoration, which began around 1860, the aim was to reinvigorate the Confucian state through authoritative and revenue enhancement reforms, as well as a practical application of Confucian principles in governance. To tackle the thorny problem of foreign threats, the reformers' initial response was the adoption of Western military technology and diplomatic practices, conveniently encapsulated as "self-strengthening" (ziqiang自強), in 1861. Simply reforms soon acquired a life of their own. It became apparent early on that the adoption of ane Western technological or diplomatic innovation would inevitably lead to the adoption of some other. Modern guns and boats would require new military training, just as their industry would require machinists and engineers, and they in turn would demand support industries such as coal mining and a modern transportation infrastructure. To finance these projects, the self-strengtheners branched out into coin-making enterprises. A steamship company and textile mills followed, first under government purview, merely somewhen, under further pressure to combat inexpensive foreign manufactured goods, import-substitution industries were promoted, at present completely in private easily, who were touted as patriotic entrepreneurs. To see demands, modern teaching was introduced. In the meantime, the foreigners—their enterprises, missionaries, and military might—connected to threaten the Qing Empire, extracting greater concessions each time there was an altercation or state of war, which the Chinese inevitably lost. By the end of the 19th century, some Chinese began to realize that, if they were to become a mod nation, their political arrangement had to be seriously reformed and, should that neglect, changed. The combined effect of modern commerce, industry, and pedagogy had led to major diversification and enrichment of the Chinese elites. They were now poised for greater say in the polity. When their demands were not satisfied, they deserted the Qing Courtroom, and the dynasty collapsed in 1912. Seen in its firsthand aftermath, all the efforts at reform or cocky-strengthening had failed. Over the long haul, the late Qing had laid the foundation for modern China. In that location was no turning back.

General Overviews

Given the nature of this topic, full general overviews come largely in the forms of textbooks, of which several are notable. Hsü 2000 is a systematic, insightful account: it starting time appeared in 1970, and the relevant section has not been updated for some time. In that location is a slight emphasis on political leadership, particularly the imperial. Spence 1999 is written in smooth-flowing prose. Though shorter than Hsü 2000, it does not requite up much in terms of essentials. Fairbank 1978 and Fairbank and Liu 1980, though somewhat dated, comprise first-class essays on belatedly Qing, some of which will be discussed in relevant sections beneath. In Chinese, a number of works on the history of the Qing dynasty also provide extensive treatment of the period in question. A notable case is Qingdai quanshi (especially Vol. 8, edited past Mi Rucheng, and Vol. 9, edited by Xu Che and Dong Shouyi), which adopts a Marxist perspective. Xiao 1962–1963, though dated, probably provides the most thorough treatment of the period, in well-nigh three,000 pages. Amongst these works, only Hsü 2000 provides a user-friendly, though brief, evaluation of the Qing menses. Both the Qing dynasty and the 1840–1912 periods are oft viewed every bit the beginning of modern Red china. Either style, the implication is that mod China is a continuing procedure, giving rise to numerous studies of 20th-century China that devote substantial treatment of the pre-1912 era.

• Fairbank, John K., ed. The Cambridge History of Prc. Vol. ten, Belatedly Ch'ing, 1800–1911, Part 1. Cambridge, Uk: Cambridge University Press, 1978.

  The bulk of this work, from affiliate 4 to the end (chapter 11), analyzes major political topics of this catamenia. Authored by major scholars of Mainland china's modern history, this is an authoritative work. The treatment is topical and, therefore, equally a whole does not provide a flowing narrative.

• Fairbank, John 1000., and Kwang-ching Liu, eds. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 11, Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911, Part 2. Cambridge, Britain: Cambridge Academy Press, 1980.

  Similar to Vol. 10 in organization, this volume deals with the economic system, foreign relations, military machine, and intellectual and social developments as well as the reform and revolution of the final decade of the Qing.

• Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. The Ascent of Modern China. sixth ed. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

  By far the most thorough text on the period (capacity 7–20). Balanced, methodical, and often insightful. Originally published in 1970.

• Qingdai quanshi (清代全史). 10 vols. Shenyang, Communist china: Liaoning renmin chubanshe, 1991–1993.

  Run into peculiarly Vol. 8, edited by Mi Rucheng 宓汝成; Vol. 9, edited past Xu Che 徐彻 and Dong Shouyi 董守义; and Vol. ten, edited past Liu Kexiang 刘克祥. Reflecting a Marxist influence, this "complete history of the Qing" provides ample coverage on social economic bug, highlighting the exploitation of the poor (peasants and workers). In international relations, the maltreatment of People's republic of china and the Chinese past the strange powers and foreigners—imperialism—is stressed.

• Spence, Jonathan D. The Search for Modern Communist china. 2nd ed. New York and London: Due west. Due west. Norton, 1999.

  Capacity half-dozen–eleven pertain to the menstruation in question. Though less detailed than Hsü 2000, this extremely well-written text provides good coverage and is especially strong on weaving social history into the main narrative. Third edition published in 2013.

• Xiao Yishan 蕭一山. Qingdai tongshi (清代通史). 5 vols. Taibei: Taiwan shangwu yin shuguan, 1962–1963.

  Despite its title, challenge to be a "comprehensive" history of the Qing, by far the greater part of this piece of work—parts of Vol. 2, Vols. 3–four, and parts of Vol. five (tables)—chronicle to the history of the Qing from c. 1840. The approach is traditional, with an overconcentration on scholars and schools of thought, but the book is all the same a mine of data.

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